Kaley Shoaf- Book Review

Kaley Shoaf
Elang 324

The Influence of Jane Austen

Jane Austen was one of the foremost British authors of the 19th century. Though largely unknown while Austen was living, her work has become very popular with readers and critiques alike. Jane Austen was born in 1775 to a family of the lower-rank gentry and, for most of Austen’s life, her father was a rector at Steventon, Hampshire. She received much of her education through reading at home under the influence of her father and brothers. She began writing as a young woman and, as was customary at the time, did not publish under her name, but simply as “A Lady.” Austen’s social upbringing, as well as the fact that she never married, gave her a unique outlook on the social circumstances of 18th and 19th century England. Indeed, her novels were primarily focused on these issues, though generally taking a comical approach. Her works were part of the transition into realism in literature.

I read Sense and Sensibility, Austen’s first full-length novel, which was published in 1811. Through Sense and Sensibility and her following novels, Jane Austen made significant contributions to the English language by including words never before written in literature.

In Sense and Sensibility, Jane Austen primarily tells the story of Elinor and Marianne Dashwood who, after the death of their father, find themselves in a rather unfortunate financial state. The book follows their interactions with their relations and friends, as well as their experiences in love lost and love found. The Oxford English Dictionary cites Jane Austen’s Sense and Sensibility as the first published text to include several words, such as chaperon, incautiousness, irrepressible, stylish, and unlover-like. Though used centuries earlier as a noun, chaperon was used for the first time as a verb, meaning, “To act as chaperon to (a young lady); to escort.” (All definitions come from the OED Online.) Similarly, the word incautious had previously been used as an adjective but had never been turned into a noun as Austen did by using incautiousness, which means, “The quality of being incautious; heedlessness, rashness.” The word repress had been used as a verb since the 14th century but Jane Austen was the first to add the prefix ir- and the suffix –ible­ to form the adjective irrespressible, to mean “Not repressible; that cannot be repressed, restrained, or put down; irrestrainable. (Of persons, often more or less humorous.)” This is a good example of Austen’s typical comical commentary on human nature and the attitudes of the time period. Probably the most currently well-known and commonly used word first appearing in Sense and Sensibility is stylish. The adjective means “Of persons, their appearance or manners, also of dress, equipage, etc.: Noticeable for ‘style’ or conformity to the fashionable standard of elegance; showily fashionable.” When first written, Jane Austen spelled it stilish, but the y has since replaced the i. The final word—and the least common today—was unlover-like. In her text, the word was meant to imply a manner not suiting a lover. The word is an excellent example of how easy it is to form words in English by simply adding prefixes and suffixes to existing words.

The next Jane Austen novel which made significant contributions to the English language was Mansfield Park, which was published in 1814. The book tells the story of Fanny Price, a young, poor girl who is sent to live with her rich relatives. As she does in most of her stories, in Mansfield Park, Jane Austen focuses on the social interactions between the young, single English. In her second major novel, Austen was the first to use the words coze, steepish, unpuncuality, and unrepulsable. All of these words are quite unfamiliar to us in modern American English, but became more common in the time following the publication of Mansfield Park. The first, coze, was first used as a noun by Austen, meaning “A cosy, friendly talk.” Personally, I think we should stage a revival of the word; I quite like it. Second, the adjective steepish was used to mean “Somewhat steep, rather precipitous.” In modern English we simply use the word steep to mean the same thing, though steepish is reminiscent of the popular habit in modern English of adding the suffix –ish to the end of any word in order to mean somewhat or rather. Austen first used unpunctuality to indicate a lack of punctuality, or regard for etiquette and formality. Unrepulsable was used to mean incapable of being repulsed, or driven back or repelled. Many of the words used by Jane Austen relate to human interaction or relations, which makes sense because her novels were often based around these topics.

The last of her novels which were published while Austen was still alive was Emma, which was published in 1816. The novel is about the dealings of a young, rich woman who meddles in the affairs of others, trying to be a matchmaker, and learns a few lessons herself. In this book, Jane Austen is the first to use coddle, in-between, smarten, spoilt, sympathizer, unfastidious, unmirthful, and unmodulated. Coddle is used as a verb to mean “To treat as an invalid in need of nourishing food and nursing; to nurse overmuch, cocker.” It is presumed by some that the word is actually a variant of caudle, which is to give a specific warm drink, called a caudle, to a sick person. In-between, which is common in modern English (though not necessarily in the same sense as Austen used it,) was first used by Austen to mean an interval—a time between significant events. Austen used the verb smarten, in conjunction with the preposition to, to mean “To make smart or spruce; to improve in appearance.” Today, we would usually use spruce up or fix up to mean the same thing. Jane Austen was the first to use spoilt as a variation on the past participle spoiled to refer to a person who is rotten or overly-indulged. Next, Austen used sympathizer as a noun to mean someone who sympathizes or agrees with another person. Continuing in her pattern of using the prefix un- to form new words, in Emma, Jane Austen uses unfastidious, unmirthful, and unmodulated. Unfastidious means agreeable, pleasant, or tasteful. Conversely, unmirthful was used to mean unhappy, unpleasant, or not joyful. Unmodulated, also an adjective, means unmeasured or unvaried. When speaking of a person’s voice, as in Emma, it can mean unchanged or monotone.

The final two Jane Austen novels which significantly contributed to the English language were both published after Austen had already died. Both Northanger Abbey and Persuasion were published in 1818, a year after the death of Jane Austen. Austen’s influence on British literature and the English language, however, carried on for many years after her death. In Northanger Abbey, Austen tells the story of young Catherine Morland’s experiences in making friends and learning who her real friends are. In the book, Austen introduced the words baseball, fragmented, fragmental, road-book, and uncoquettish. At the time, baseball was not a common sport in England. Austen was the first to write about it. She was also the first to turn the noun fragment into an adjective—fragmented, which was used to mean broken into pieces or parts. She also introduced the adjective fragmental, which had the same meaning as fragmentary: “Of the nature of, or composed of, fragments; not complete or entire; disconnected or disjointed.” This shows the ease of using different endings to form adjectives—all meaning essentially the same thing. What we would commonly refer to today as a road map or, simply, a map, Jane Austen called a road-book. In that time, however, the book might have actually described the roads of a specific area instead of just showing them. Finally, in Northanger Abbey, Austen used for the first time uncoquettish to mean a manner dissimilar to that of a coquette, which OED describes as “A woman (more or less young), who uses arts to gain the admiration and affection of men, merely for the gratification of vanity or from a desire of conquest, and without any intention of responding to the feelings aroused; a woman who habitually trifles with the affections of men; a flirt.” Today we may refer to a coquette as a man-eater. So many of Austen’s stories and, in turn, words reflect the situation of young women of the time and their social dealings—specifically, their searches for an appropriate and suitable match.

Finally, Jane Austen’s Persuasion was published in 1818. The novel was originally published with Northanger Abbey as one volume and both stories partially take place in Bath—a resort town in England in which Jane Austen herself lived for several years. Persuasion also tells the story of a woman, though in this story it is of Anne Elliot, a 27 year-old woman fearing spinsterhood. Once again, the story highlights the social situation of the time as the characters seek love and fortune in a spouse. In the book, Jane Austen used for the first time the words carpenter, cousinly, door-bell, unfeudal, and unmodernized. Carpenter is used in the novel as a verb for the firs time, meaning, “To make by carpentry; to do carpenter's work; to put together mechanically.” The word had previously been used as a noun since the 14th century. The word cousinly was also introduced as an adjective meaning, “Characteristic of or befitting a cousin.” Family and social relations are very important in all of Austen’s novels. Austen also introduced door-bell: “A bell in a house, connected with the door by a wire, and rung by means of a handle.” Door-bell is common in modern English, as well, though the object itself has, of course, been updated and is now totally electronic. Unfeudal was used to refer to a state of being completely unrelated to a feud or the feudal system. Again, using the prefix un-, Austen uses the word unmodernized, meaning not updated or modernized. Interestingly, in this novel, many of the words used for the first time are relevant to the domestic or governmental situation of the period.

Beginning with her novel Sense and Sensibility, Jane Austen made significant contributions to the English language through the new vocabulary she introduced in each book. Perhaps more important, she has given us a peek into the language of the period, as well as the feelings and situations behind that language. Through her characters, our knowledge and understanding of the English language is enhanced and enlarged.


Works Cited
Austen, Jane. Sense and Sensibility. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1961.
"Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia". 11/27/2009 .
Oxford English Dicitonary. Oxford University. Web. 27 Nov. 2009. .

Jaimee Jones
ELANG 324
Prof. C. Hallen
2 December 2009

Book Review: Morphological Usage in Villette

Introduction

In her book Villette, Charlotte Bronte presents an English narrator who relocates in a French town and combines her own culture with that of her surroundings. The setting and plot of the novel provides a substantial collection of French vocabulary influences in English and word construction. Bronte especially focuses on morphemes like prefixes and suffixes when constructing new words, enriching English through small means. By examining the history of the English language, the role Villette plays in sustaining and advancing the English language is undeniable.

Prefixes

Some new words penned by Bronte in Villette are actually old words that have just been inflected with prefixes common in her time period. By following the rules of construction from as early as Old English, Bronte produces words that make sense and are credible.
The first prefix is un-. There are three words introduced that follow the conventions of Old and Middle English in unique ways. The un- in unstabled, a new word meaning not put into a stable, is added to an adjectival past participle, a usage dating back to Old English and continuing on through Middle English. Resulting from such growing favor, un- at the beginning of a past participle is now the commonest use of the prefix. Another similar example that follows the same rules is the new word unformalized, basically meaning not made formal. However, unformalized has a feature that does not appear in the English language until the 16th and 17th centuries: prepositions start getting added on as suffixes to past participles negated with un-. In Bronte’s usage, unformalized appears with the preposition by. “He listened so kindly, so teachably; unformalized by scruples” (282). These multi-word adjectives have become permanent and present in general use. The last new word with the un- prefix is unbaized, an adjective formed from the noun baize, which is thick furniture lining. Although this form appears rarely in Old English (e.g. unðewintred), adjectives from substantives belong mostly to the Early Modern English period. The un- usually means “not provided or furnished with” when added to these adjectives. Bronte exemplifies how easy and common it is to form new words by simply adding un- to the front of past participles or adjectives for negation, adding to this limitless class of words.
The second prefix Bronte uses to form new words is re- at the beginning of verbs. Considering the English and French influence present in Villette, the etymology of re- seems to play a proper role in Bronte’s choice of new word construction. Although re- is common in all the Romance languages, the immediate source of the prefix is French. Words inflected with the prefix re- usually meaning “again” are some of the earliest adopted into English from the Romance languages. The first word Bronte introduces in this category is remingle, meaning to mingle again. The other new word is recasket, meaning to enclose again in a casket. Re- as a prefix became increasingly popular in the early 17th century and subsequent years, leading to many new words. French influences English even in new word formation by implementing basic rules of construction. Bronte demonstrates this growth by adding a couple words of her own.
The third prefix in- or ir- negates words of Latin or Romanic origin and is sometimes interchangeable with the Old English un-. In the 16th and 17th centuries, in- was preferred to un- even with non-Latin and non-Romanic words. However, the preference has now shifted to keep in- with only Latin words. Since Bronte writes Villette in 1853, she uses the latter rule when forming new words with in- or ir- (ir- being used when the root word begins with r). Inexpectant, inadventurous, and irrealizable are the three new words produced by this rule. Expectant is of French and Latin origin, adventurous is of French origin, and realizable is of Italian origin. What is interesting is that none of these new words still exist in Present Day English. In fact, inadventurous has become unadventurous and irrealizable has become unrealizable. By evaluating this change, English is starting to narrow its negation scope to the Old English prefix un- even more as time passes. Still, Bronte provides accurately interpreted constructions with the prefixes in- and ir-.
The final and etymologically rich prefix used in Bronte’s word formation is be-. The new word be-inked is a participial adjective meaning smeared or stained over with ink. The prefix usually means “covered or furnished with” in an ostentatious or overdone way. Dating back to Old English, be- is the weak or unstressed form of the preposition and adverb by or bi in Old English. In Middle English, the unstressed be- was written either as bi- or by-, but the Old English construction was restored later, making be- the permanent prefix for the unstressed. Bronte’s use of the prefix in the new word is unstressed, showing proper implementation of this rule. The formations using be- as a prefix in this way are limitless like the use of un-. Bronte will definitely not be alone in inventing new words with these constructions.

Suffixes

A little less common is Bronte’s use of suffixes in forming new words. However, without exception, Bronte continues the traditions of Romanic languages and Old English in her suffix derivations in order to make her mark in the history of the English language.
The first suffix -ess denotes female persons or animals through sexist language borrowed from Latin and Romanic languages and seen in Old but mostly Middle English from these borrowings. French -esse and Latin -issa change to -ess in Middle English with words like countess and mistress. This form took the place of the Old English -estre or -ster seen in spinster. The suffix -ster became masculine. Instead of songster as feminine, English now has songstress. However, because of sexist language and the move toward gender-neutral language, English is now dropping the suffix -ess and any inflection indicating gender. The entertaining aspect of her new word spanieless is that Bronte parenthetically writes that she is aware of her coining of the word. She is consciously taking rules from French and Latin and applying it to form a word for a female spaniel.
The second suffix Bronte uses in her word construction is -less, meaning “devoid of” or” free from,” in blindless (window). The Old English léas was used as an adjectival suffix most frequently after nouns like wíflléas (without a wife). It could also be used as a separate adjective, but that form did not last through Middle English. In Present Day English, -less remains a suffix and, again, can be attached to countless nouns to form an adjective. By the 19th century, -less had already attained its modern spelling, and Bronte takes advantage of this common suffix in its modern sense to express a concept in the least amount of words ( as opposed to a window without blinds) to be concise.
The third suffix -ry (shortened from -ery) is adopted from French and appears in Middle English. The suffix -ry is used after d, t, l, n, or sh and when the stress of the word is on the first syllable. When added to a word, the suffix brings a general collective sense to that word. In Middle English, -erie was used in forming nouns. This form was adopted from French and used with words of French origin in its earliest examples. Bronte’s example of this suffix is garlandry, or a collection of garland. Because the word ends with d and is stressed on the first syllable, Bronte correctly uses the shortened -ry. Also, the word garland comes from garlande or gerlande in Old French, further crediting Bronte’s formation.
The last suffixed used in new word formation in Villette is -y. The sense of this suffix is “having qualities of” or “full of.” The Old English form of -y is -ið or -iht as seen in dústið (dusty) and sandiht (sandy). There were many adjectives of this formation in Old English that exist even today in Present Day English. From Middle English up until the 17th century, derivatives with the suffix -y kept increasing. By the 19th century, derivatives with -y became more colloquial and were used to describe characteristics of a person or a thing. These descriptions tended to be for the purpose of ridicule of disfavor. This trend continues into Present Day English. Bronte introduces the word coloury with this suffix. The definition of coloury is characterized by or abounding in colour, used to describe a female character in the novel in a negative way. Bronte fits the standard of 19th-century usage of -y for colloquial description of a person. In this case, the commonality of -y unfortunately led to its colloquialness. However, it presents yet another vast class of word derivatives.

Conclusion

There is a clear pattern in Bronte’s use of morphological inflections to create new words. Many times the prefixes and suffixes have such loose standards that the derivations are inexhaustible. Because English allows such flexibility, Bronte is able to provide a number of new words that are comprehensible and accurate, even if they no longer exist in Present Day English. Through the addition of simple prefixes and suffixes, Bronte shows how malleable language is. Although the English and French have a long history of conflict, the richness and fusion of their languages have produced a diverse and unbounded English language.

Works Cited

Brontë, Charlotte, 1816-1855. Villette. New York: New York : Derby & Jackson, 1859. Print.

Oxford English Dictionary. Ed. Oxford University Press. Oxford, England: Oxford, England : Oxford University Press, 2002. Print.

The Lord of the Rings: Impetuous of an Age

Adam Andreason

Dr. Cynthia Hallen

ELANG 324 Sec 1

November 30, 2009

The Lord of the Rings: Impetuous of an Age

Language and culture are inexorably tied parts of the same whole. They circle around one another like currents of hot and cold air. It’s uncertain where one pulls or pushes the other, but they are much of the cause of the invention and expansion of terminology and lexicon, shifts in and creation of connotative meaning, and the overall evolution of language itself. In fact, “language cannot be used without carrying meaning and referring beyond itself” (Gao 58).

Literature presents us with a singular opportunity—language crystallized in physical form, complete with much of its original background, history, and cultural basis intact, especially when presented in the form of a full story. It is these gems of narrative that can be passed from person to person, the integrity of their language unmaligned by word of mouth, influencing the views, perceptions, language and culture of each reader, each mind. So the greatest way a piece of writing can affect language is by way of culture, in a perfect circle—language moving culture creating language.

And John Ronald Reuel Tolkien wrote something that changed our culture. Like many great works of art, The Lord of the Rings grew on the cultural conciseness of English speakers slowly, in waves of interest and participation, finally breaching forth on a worldwide stage of recognition in the 1960s, and growing an increasing large amount of appreciative scholars and readers as time went on. As early as Georg W. Boswell’s article “Tolkien as Litterateur” in 1972 it was viewed in many circles with esteem, even though only now is it finally making its way into the halls of great epics, establishing much of what we see as the fantasy genre today. As early as 1954 the idea of “Tolkienian” aspects began to take root in our language and literature conceptualization (OED).

In terms of direct language contributor, a lot of things could be attributed to Tolkien. Reinvention and conceptualization of things such as elves, dwarves (not only their nature as imaginary beings, but also their pluralization altered because of him, being elfs and dwarfs previously, and dwarrow archaically—Let. of Tolkien, 23-24) as well as thousands of other mythical features that as a philologist he so thoroughly and purposefully included into his story’s tongues and writings. Like Shakespeare before him, much of the wonder readers find in Tolkien comes less from what he says than how he says it. The specific phonological influence of his works brought numerous connects to forgotten forms and styles, and more so the entire cultural phenomenon became a well spring of thought that his writings created.

In fine, Tolkien did two things that altered our language. First, he forged a connection to the culture and style of the old Germanic tribes and the forms of Old and Early Modern English. His direct lexical and syntactical influences are less a reinvention of the language, and more a revival. Second, he awoke our culture to a contemplation of the extraordinary. He was not the first or only writer of his time to broach on what we now call “fantasy” (its idea as a genre was developing during his time with authors like C.S. Lewis, Lord Dunsany, Edgar Rice Burrows and others) but more definitively and in more widespread ways than any other author he made myth something human and touchable, and served as an inspiration for an entirely new world of writing and fantasy.

A favorite piece of language falls from Gandalf’s lips in The Two Towers:

‘The wise speak only of what they know, Grima son of Galmod. A witless worm have you become. Therefore be silent, and keep your forked tongue behind your teeth. I have not passed through fire and death to bandy crooked words with a serving-man till the lighting falls.’ T.T., 118

This single paragraph is rich in lingual history and syntax formerly lost to common speech— resurrected in blasting fashion in Mithrandir’s ultimatum. Notice first the way he refers to Grima in reference to his paternal line—an aspect brought back to life by Tolkien in an age where the last name of a person has substituted such a use. Notice the unique prepositional phrase used—although the modern-day equivalent form of ‘You have become a witless worm’ is almost universal in its current common usage, the statement using the older syntactical style was so striking in this piece that it has by association become a labeled form for “grand, ancient speech.” Here’s a fun game: Take a simple average sentence, and then transform it using the same pattern of object, subject, verb. The sentence ‘He borrowed my book’ becomes ‘my book he has borrowed’, ‘pass the mustard’ changes to ‘the mustard you will pass’ and ‘you have become powerful, I sense the dark side in you” is ‘powerful you have become, the dark side I sense in you.’

I hope that last one might sound familiar.

The use of the idiomatic phrase “keep your forked tongue behind your teeth” is not only a poignant and powerful way of telling someone to shut up, but instead of the faster and duller modern phrase it uses specific imagery to convey a less direct and more rich denunciation. The passage continues to use ancient forms: when Gandalf mentions “passed through fire and death” he means it literally, but also uses the old language feature to mean ‘all trials that could have befallen.’ Finally, the paragraph rounds out with a unique phrase in “bandy crooked words”—not only resurrecting a word all but unheard modernly (and amusing to ask people to define—‘bandy’ is often known by reference, but people seldom have a clear way of demarcating it) but continues to use older forms of speech that relied less on direct statements and more on imagery and different verb phrases that is now common.

This is all on one single page of The Lord of the Rings. Most of it from one paragraph. The remainder of the books built on the formations of such language features. Especially the people and language of Rohan—where the Lord of the Mark is called in Old English style “Theoden King” and he refers to his niece as “sister-daughter” and there resides classic Beowulf-esque images in the form of the Golden Hall of the Meduseld. Tolkien’s choice in verbiage is frequently archaic, like often taking modern words by their older meaning (i.e. spent as in “He is nearly spent” ROFK 140) and the older, Early Modern English lexis of words like ‘verily’, ‘forthwith’, ‘elsewhither’ and ‘alas.’ This is only a the tiniest fraction of marked, archaic, unique, or new words that Tolkien himself created, that live on rediscovered every year by thousands of readers of every profession and stripe, Tolkien cloaking old language and epic plot in modern narrative style.

All of these language features, although present in other works and historical writings, have become marked forms to us—because of their usage in Tolkien’s books. It sometimes seems that the work must have been completed a century or three ago, but Tolkien did his writing from 1937 to 1955 (Carpenter 265). He has scrawled in indelible ink across our cultural consciousness, so that we immediately understand and associate such phraseology with epic heroism and grandiose speechmaking, and as such produce plays and movies and entertainments in older periods of the world using this kind of language.

It is time to transport yourself mentally to your local bookstore. Under the section label usually garbled with the over-broad misnomer “Sci-fi/Fantasy” you’ll find a range of books of various styles, colors, and backgrounds. Nearly all, if not all, of these hark back to Tolkien. He is the great bar by which every one of them is compared, and his world is the meter by which their worlds are measured. Travel on now to your local video store. Whether you look on the game isle or through the movies, if the title takes place premodernly, involves magic of any kind, has so much as whiff of Elves, Dwarves, Halfings (the less copywrited variation of ‘Hobbit’) or sorcerers, it is more than likely at least somewhat based on Tolkien’s ideology.

Have you ever heard of Dungeons & Dragons? The internationally famous game of role playing using paper, pens and imagination is direct growth off of The Lord of the Rings, and has become a cultural icon and universal symbol for various subcultures. This game inspired books, which bleed into movies, which also in turn inspired hundreds of other similar role playing games, which grew into ideas that spread across the globe. These reverberated as more books, animation, movies, and as entirely new genre of entertainment—RPGs, video game style Role Playing Games, with titles that in turn become iconic, like Final Fantasy or World of Warcraft. In the modern age of technology and communication, these stories along with hundreds of other variants have been the founding seeds for a world culture of fantasy, a realm of escapist and fantastic literature. To our gain or detriment, the world is covered in the decking and pomp of the fantasy genre.

Obviously, these fantastical machinations cannot be solely rooted The Lord of the Rings. The Tempest and The Midsummer Night’s Dream, Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, Journey to the West, The Tale of Ginji, The Odyssey, The Divine Comedy, Beowulf and many, many others all predate Tolkien’s epic. The stories and the ideas and the language where these stories grew to fruition were already greatly established by their interpretation, their culture, and their time period. Buy Tolkien himself obviously drew his epic from somewhere.

He drew deep. He brought back language and culture from a forgotten age—Germanic tribal ideas, Old and Early Modern English syntax, lexicon, and ideology. He imbued his characters and plot and world with modern reflections of the ancient myths, and gave them new breath, and the form of a modern novel to walk around as something tangible. He struck so deep a chord with the story of human existence, the Trial and the Battle of Good and Evil, that he influenced or inspired a new genre of literature, and a new era of Romantic thought. He put the extraordinary on the bookshelf, and into the minds and hearts of millions. It was yet another great turning in the circle of language and culture, culture and language, that altered the way we think, the way we speak, and the way we storytell.

On my shelf, there are a small number of leather-bound volumes. To each I go when my wisdom seems barest, and when my thoughts linger longest in the dark. Reading them brings me hope, lifts me out of the slough of self-doubt, and helps me believe there is good in the world. One of them is an epic; a great old story of a Hobbit and a Ring. This story has brought on a new age—a place where language is reborn, where old is new, where good still lies in the hearts of Men.

Works Cited

Carpenter, Humphrey. “J.R.R. Tolkien, a Biography.” Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2000.

Gao, Fengping. "Langage is Culture - On intercultural communication". Journal of Language and Linguistics 2006: 58-67

Tolkien, J.R.R.. “The Lord of the Rings.” Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1987.

Tolkien, J.R.R.. “The Letters of J.R.R. Tolkien.” Ed. Humphrey Carpenter. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1981. 23-24.

“Tolkienian” Oxford English Dictionary. 2nd ed. 2002.

POWER-POINT Guidelines

1. Identify an aspect of the history of English that engages your interests, purposes, goals, and learning style.

2. Use the internet, our textbook, our workbook, our website, your experiences, and other resources to create a 15-20 page Power-Point presentation on that aspect of English, for use in a classroom setting or other real-life application, such as the 2010 Study Abroad course.

3. Choose a focus or approach for the Power-Point presentation. Some possible approaches include:

• Make a basic time line of the key developments in the history of English.
• Explain the development of the English language in terms of your favorite linguistic domain: phonological, morphological, syntactic, semantic, or pragmatic.
• Explain and exemplify one of the main historical periods of English: Old English, Middle English, Early Modern English, Present-Day English, and World English.
• Describe famous or important people in the history of the English language or one of its periods.
• Describe famous or important places in the history of the English language or one of its periods.
• Describe famous or important events in the history of the English language or one of its periods.
• Use a family history website (http://www.familysearch.org/eng/default.asp) to identify the geographical and genealogical language roots of one of your ancestors in the history of English.
• Create a recipe book for the history of English or one of its periods.
• Use the internet, the library, or other resources, to create your own strategy for explaining the history of the English language.

4. Email a copy of the Power-Point presentation to Dr. Hallen, by no later than 10:00 a.m. on Wednesday, December 9th (note new deadline).


Content: informative; interesting; creative; new language insights 5%
Expression: organization; clarity; transitions; standard usage 5%
Format: title; visual appeal; layout; proof-read; sources 5%

The three most best presentations will win a prize.

BOOK REVIEW Guidelines

1. Identify a favorite book or piece of literature that is relevant to the history of English.

2. Read, review, and explore that text in terms of various aspects of the history of the English language: phonological, morphological, syntactic, semantic, pragmatic, diachronic, and so forth.

3. Choose a focus that engages your interests, purposes, goals, and learning style. Some possible approaches include:

• Use the Advanced Search functions of the Oxford English Dictionary (OED) to explore how the text you selected has contributed new words and/or new meanings to the lexicon of the English language.
• Use the Advanced Search functions of the OED to explore how the author of that text has contributed new words and/or new meanings to the lexicon of the English language.
• Explore how the text relates to or represents a period in the history of English: Old English, Middle English, Early Modern English, Present-Day English, and World English.
• Explore the English language features of a character or characters in the text.
• Use a family history website (http://www.familysearch.org/eng/default.asp) to identify the geographical and genealogical language roots of the author or characters in the text.
• Using the internet, the library, or other resources, create your own strategy for exploring the text through its English language features, or for exploring the history of English through the features of the text.

4. Use your reading and research notes to write a 5-7 page double-spaced paper.

5. Post a copy of the book review on the class blog site by 10:00 a.m., and give a paper copy to Dr. Hallen by 11:00 a.m. in class on Wednesday, December 2nd.


Content: text selection; review strategy; language insights 5%
Expression: organization; clarity; standard academic usage 5%
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Blog 2 – Early Modern English- Translatio

Shakespeare Sonnet: I

From fairest creatures we desire increase,
De criaturas bellas, deseamos aumento,
Of creatures beautiful, we desire increase,

That thereby beauty's rose might never die,
Para que la rosa de belleza nunca muera,
In order that the rose of beauty will never die,

But as the riper should by time decease,
Pero por en tiempo lo que maduro se habría podrido,
But through time the ripe thing has been rotten,

His tender heir might bear his memory:
Su heredero tierno se encargue con su memoria:
His tender heir carries his self his memory:

But thou contracted to thine own bright eyes,
Pero tú contraste a tus propios ojos brillantes,
But you contracted to your own bright eyes,

Feed'st thy light's flame with self-substantial fuel,
Nutriste el fuego de tu luz con combustible que se mantiene,
You nourished the fire of your light with fuel that can maintain itself,

Making a famine where abundance lies,
Haciendo una hambruna en donde se acuesta la abundancia,
Making a famine where the abundance lies (like a person),

Thy self thy foe, to thy sweet self too cruel:
Siendo tú tu propio enemigo, a tu dulce personaje demasiado cruel:
Being you your own enemy, to you sweet person too cruel:

Thou that art now the world's fresh ornament,
Tú que eres ahora el adorno nuevo del mundo,
You that are now a new ornament of the world,

And only herald to the gaudy spring,
Y solo anunciar el manantial llamativo,
And only herald to the bright spring (water),

Within thine own bud buriest thy content,
Dentro de tu propio brote, enterras tu satisfacción,
In your own bud(of a plant), you bury your satisfaction,

And, tender churl, mak'st waste in niggarding:
Y, hombre tierno, tú malgastas en ser egoísta:
And, tender man, you squander in being selfish:

Pity the world, or else this glutton be,
Te apiadas del mundo, o si no sé este glotón
You pity the world, or if not, this is glutton.

To eat the world's due, by the grave and thee.
A comer la cuota del mundo, por la tumba y ti.
To eat the due of the World, by the grave and you.

gluten free cookies!!!

We have come up with a cookie recipe without flour or milk (or butter!) In the spirit of medieval cooking, there are no specific amounts because we were adapting as we went and baking until "it looked done," etc. but they ARE edible! The oil from the nuts replaces both flour and oil in moistening and holding the cookie together, although for it to work they must be ground up very fine with the chocolate or the cookies will crumble. I reccommend either a food processor, or putting the first two ingredients in a heavy duty ziplock and taking a hammer to it. :D

to maken lute kaakis nat of flowre ac melk
to make little cakes not of flour or milk

nim nutis mid (chocolate) and braye heom in an morter
take nuts with chocolate and pound them in a mortar

and do þerto a dole of sucre and an eeg and a lute sinamome.
and put (in) a portion of sugar and an egg and a little cinnamon

Hete the ouen and bake it wel. Serue lute kaakis hate.
Heat the oven and bake it well. Serve little cakes hot.

Grind (as discussed above) two handfuls of nuts (we used peanuts, maybe two cups or a little less) with almost a whole bag of chocolate chips. add about 3/4 cup of sugar and an egg and bake at 350. good luck!

EMnE Hymn

I wrote this hymn based off of Matthew 11:28-30 and it is meant to be sung to the tune of Hymn #284 "If You Could Hie to Kolob" in 7-6-7-6 meter.


Come All Ye Heavy Laden

Come unto Him, the Savior,
He is our Lord and King.
His arm is ever reaching
And with his love to bring.
If we but take our burden
And all our worldly care,
He’ll lift and raise them from us
And keep us from despair.

No matter that we’ve suffered,
No matter that we’ve sinned,
He can heal all our sorrows
As if they’ve never been.
For if we will learn of Him
And have a humble heart,
Our souls shall find rest eternal
From which they’ll ne’er depart.

Psalm 23 into Lyrical Form

I decided to create Psalm 23 into a hymn using Sevens and Sixes meter (7-6-7-6). I wanted to create a moving, peaceful feel to the scripture, as it is a prayer of comfort in one's own solitude, and provides the blessing of God and His holy spirit to be with us as we follow his counsel. I just love David's recollection that the Lord is his shepherd and that he is someone he can rely upon in time of need. The overall message is simply beautiful, and I hope that putting the psalm in this meter appropriately expresses David's overwhelming emotions for the Lord, and properly shows the plain style that is used so often within the scriptures in prayers of the heart. This is my metered form of the Psalm, and then below, I put the Psalm to hymn #124, Be Still my Soul. Enjoy!

Metered 7-6-7-6 poem:
With the Lord as my shepherd,
ne'er shall I want again.
He leads me to rest and peace,
He gives me sustenance.

He makes new my soul with love,
in righteousness He leads.
I follow his humble path
for peace and solitude.

Though I may walk through death's door,
I have no fear within,
for thou art with me always,
guiding, comforting me.

He anoints me with oil,
blesses me with comfort.
Mercy shall find me through Him,
if in Him I remain.

Be Still my Soul version:
My Lord, My God,
Thou shepherd me to light.
Thou art my rod,
and aid me in my plight.
Make new my soul,
and help me find my rest, for if you're with
me I can feel so blessed.
Lead me to Thee,
and help me on my way,
and comfort me,
Thy spirit with me stay.

Though I may pass
through shadows of death's veil,
I will hold fast
to Thee, I cannot fail.
For Thou art host,
annointing me with oil,
Thou art the most,
no longer shall I toil.
Thy mercy shall
find me and bless my days,
ne'er will I fall,
but live with Thee in praise.

Middle English Gingerbread Recipe

Brede gingivere ys a licius deinte customable for the feires alle thurgh Europe. The spis gingivere appeirened first afitir the batales yn the landes holi and first was usuale for to presarve metes and kepe bredes fro spoilynge. Whan bredes gingivere appeirened at feires, thei were yn shapes specialle accordaunt wyth the sesoun or festival. For to maken sweete brede of gingivere, take thou broun sugre suffisaunt for to fillen onecuppe bi one thriddel, and yn a bolle, blenden yt wyth a cuppe thre quartres fol of treacle sweete , and boter of one eighten-del cuppes amountment. Blenden thou eek wyth yt watir of cuppe one thriddel ful. Whan tho engredientes mixte be, adden thou to the bolle eek thre and one quartre cuppes fol of flour, and half of a smalle spounful ech of nutimenge, poudre of cloves, poudre of canel, poudre of bakyng, soda of bakyng, and one fol spoun of gingivere. Swenge thou yt thorgh untyl yt be smuithe. Kepe thou thys dow yn a cheald plais. Morwe, take thou that dow and spreden yt oute thinne and flat on a tablet alle cloked yn flour and cutten thou yt in cerkels or plesaunte shapes for to bakyn on a tablet vre of greise in an hofne hotte bi the houndred and fifte messures. Bakyn thou the brede gingivere for eghte to tenne minets. Endoren thou the brede gingivere wyth a mixioun thikke of poudre of sugre, mylke, and a smalle spoun of licoure of vanilla.

Translation: Gingerbread is a delicious treat traditional for fairs all through Europe. The ginger spice first appeared after the Crusades and was first used to preserve meats and keep breads from spoiling. When gingerbreads appeared at fairs, they were in special shapes according to the season or festival. To make sweet gingerbread, take enough brown sugar to fill one-third cup, and in a bowl blend it with three-fourths cup molasses and one-eighth cup butter. Blend also with it one-third cup water. When those ingredients are mixed, add to the bowl also three and one-fourth cups of flour, and half a teaspoon each of nutmeg, ground cloves, ground cinnamon, baking powder, baking soda, and a full teaspoon of ginger. Stir it through until it’s smooth. Keep this dough in a cold place. The next day, take the dough and spread it out thin and flat on a cutting board covered in flour and cut it in circles or pleasant shapes to bake on an ungreased cookie sheet in an oven heated to 350 degrees. Bake the gingerbread for eight to ten minutes. Glaze the gingerbread with a thick mixture of powdered sugar, milk, and a teaspoon of vanilla extract.

ME Articles of Faith

In the period of Middle English, there was a trend of writing statements of belief. One example is the Ayenbite of Inwyt, which was translated from French in the 13^th century. In the early 19^th century, Joseph Smith wrote thirteen articles of faith that are here translated into Middle English.

We beleeue in God þe eternel Fader, and in his sonn, Jhesu Crist, and in þe holi goste.

We beleeue þæt men shuln be punyshide for þeyr particuler synnes, and not for Adames transgressioun.

We beleeue þæt thorow the passhion of Crist, alle man-kende mai be sauyde, bi obedience to the lawe and ordenaunces of þe godspell.

We beleeue þæt the firste prynciples and ordinaunces of the godspell are firste, feith in the lauerd Jhesus Crist secounde, repentaunce, þridde, baptisacion bi immersionne for the remissioun of sennes, ferthe, to blesse for the 3ifte of the holi goste.

We beleeue þæt a man mote be called of God, bi prophecie and bi þe ordynacion, bi þey hwa hafde auctorite to preche the godspell and adminystere in the ordinaunces þerin.

We beleeue in the same organisacioun þæt was in the primitiue chirche, namelich apostles, prophetis, pastours, techeres, euaungelistis and oðres.

We beleeue in the yifte of tonges, prophecie, revelacioun, visionys, halwende, interpretacioun of tonges and oðres.

We beleeue þe Bible to be the worde of God, alls fer alls hit is translateden circumspectly, & also we beleeue þe Boke of Mormon to be the worde of God.

We beleeue alle þæt God reueled haves , alle þæt he presentlye reueles and we beleeue þæt he wyll 3yt reuel mani grete and importante þingan concernyng þe kingdome of God.

We beleeue in the litteral brynging in of Israhel, and in the restoracioun of the x tribus, þæt Zion the Neowe Ierusalem wyll be bulden vpon the newe weorrelld, þæt Crist wyll reule personelly vpon the erthe and þæt þe erthe wyll be renewid and reseiue hit glorie of paradise.

We cleym þe priuelege of wirschiping God Almight-ful, acordynge to þe direccioun of oure particuler conscience and allowe alle men þæt same priuilege, let þem worschippe whare, watte, or in the maner of which þei mai.

We beleeue in being subjecten to kyngis, presidentis, reuleres and magistrates in obeiinge, honouring and susteninge þe lawe.

We beleeue in beyng honeste, trewe, chaste, beniuolente, vertuous, and in renderinge gode to alle men, indeed, we mai say þæt we folwe the amonicioun of Paul—we beleeue alle þingan, we hopye alle þingan, we have enduren mani þingan and hopie to be abel to endour alle þingan. Hif þare is ani þing vertuous, loveli, or of gode reporte or dere-worthi, we seche hafter thise þingan.

Shakespeare's Sonnet 46 Translatio

Shakespeare's Sonnet 46 Original Early Modern English

Mine eye and heart are at a mortal war,
How to divide the conquest of thy sight,
Mine eye, my heart thy picture's sight would bar,
My heart, mine eye the freedom of that right,
My heart doth plead that thou in him dost lie,
(A closet never pierced with crystal eyes)
But the defendant doth that plea deny,
And says in him thy fair appearance lies.
To side this title is impanelled
A quest of thoughts, all tenants to the heart,
And by their verdict is determined
The clear eye's moiety, and the dear heart's part.
As thus, mine eye's due is thy outward part,
And my heart's right, thy inward love of heart.

Deutsch

Mein Auge und Herz beim großen Krieg sind,

Wie man scheidet die Warmherzigkeit von deinem Gesicht,

Mein Auge, mein Herz dein Bildnis Gesicht würde beenden,

Mein Herz, mein Auge die Freihet dieses Recht,

Mein Herz bittet dich in ihm zu leihen,

(Ein Schrank hat nie mit kristallen Augen aufgespießt)

Aber der Angeschuldigte wird die Bitte bestreiten,

Und sagt in ihm dein schönes Gesicht bleibt.

Zu diese Seite hat diesen Titel als Geschworenen eingesetzt

Eine Suche durch Ideen, der Inhaber des Herzes,

Und durch sein Urteil hat angesetzt

Die Hälfte des klare Auge, und der Part des lieben Herzes.

Und so, der Anteil meines Auges ist dein ausser Anteil,

Und meine Herzes Berechtigung, deine innerhin Herzes Innigkeit.

Present Day English

My eye and heart are in a great war

How one chooses the affection from your face

My eye, my heart would stop the portrait of your face

My heart, my eye the freedom of this right

My heart begs you to lie in him

A closet has never pierced with crystal eyes

But the defendant will deny the plea

And says in him your beautiful face stays

To this side has this title been placed in the jury

A quest through thoughts, the tenant of the heart

And through his verdict was determined

The moiety of the clear eye, and the part of the dear heart

And so, the part of my eye is your outer part

And my heart’s right, your inward heart’s love

Translatio: Shakespeare Sonnet

XVII (Sonnet 17-Mandarin Chinese)

Who will believe my verse in time to come,
未来的时候谁会相信我的试,
Ultimately, who will believe my verse,

If it were fill'd with your most high deserts?
如果他满了你最高不毛之地?
If it filled your most high deserts?

Though yet heaven knows it is but as a tomb
虽说天堂知道只是一个坟墓
Though heaven knows it is only a tomb

Which hides your life, and shows not half your parts.
暗藏你的生活和不会表露你的部件的一半.
Hides your life and will not show half your parts.

If I could write the beauty of your eyes,
如果我可以写你眼睛的美,
If I could write your eyes beauty,

And in fresh numbers number all your graces,
还有用新的书记来数目你所有的恩典,
And use new numbers to count all your grace,

The age to come would say 'This poet lies;
下一个时代会说 ‘着个诗人说黄;
Next generation will say ‘This poet lies;

Such heavenly touches ne'er touch'd earthly faces.'
着样天上的触摸从来没有磨过世上的连.
Such heavenly touches have never touched earthly faces.’

So should my papers, yellow'd with their age,
我黄色和老的纸应该要,
My yellow and old papers should,

Be scorn'd, like old men of less truth than tongue,
鄙薄,就上会骗人的老人,
Be scorned, just like old men who lie,

And your true rights be term'd a poet's rage
还有你真正的对头就是诗人的腷
And your true rights are a poet’s fury

And stretched metre of an antique song:
和一个鼓舞收割的张开公尺:
And an antique song with a stretched meter:

But were some child of yours alive that time,
但那时候你的孩子是或者的,
But in that time your children are alive,

You should live twice, in it, and in my rhyme.
你在我的押运要或者两次.
You in my rhyme should live twice.

Middle English Recipe

The History of Omelette: The omelette can be found in ancient near-east culture. Beaten eggs were mixed with chopped herbs,fried until firm,then sliced into wedges in a dish know as Kookoo in Persian. This dish is thought to have travelled to Western Europe via the Middle East and North Africa,with each country adapting the original recipe to preoduce Itallian frittata,Spanish tortilla and the French omelette.
The history of Chinese Omelette: It's a popular breakfast food in Taiwan,and people call it 蛋餅(dan bing). Taiwanese people usually like it put bacon inside.
Ingredients:
Eiren
Vnaray tortilla
1 tsp sylt
greenoygnons
a tbsp oyle de olive

Bet erien agein a boll an caste greenoygnons an sylt,menge together. Hete olive agein a fraing-pot over hign hete. Caste tortilla. Caste eiren menfe an aray until browned on both side.

English Translation:
Ingredients:
eggs
1 uncook totilla
1 tsp salt
some chopped green onions
1 tbsp olive oil

Beat the eggs in a bowl and add green onions and salt,mixing well. Heat up the oil in a frying-pot over high heat. Put tortilla in. Then add eggs and green onions,and cook until browned on both sides.

Early Modern English Hymn - Oh Lord, how I Lovest Thou

by Camille Lee

This hymn is based on Nephi's Psalm in 2 Nephi 4:16-30. In this passage of scripture, Nephi finds himself very saddened and depressed because of his own wickedness. He feels like he cannot go on because of the temptations that surround him. However, after he realizes that the Lord has redeemed his soul and has never forsaken him, he pulls himself out of this misery and rejoices in the goodness of God.

This hymn is written in the Sevens & Sixes meter (7-6-7-6).

Oh Lord, how I lovest thou.

Thy works mine eyen have seen,

Thy words my heart ponderyth.

But I, a wretched man,

Do sorrow in my heavy heart.

My soul grievyth and groanyth

For sin doth plague me always.

Joyful I cannot be

For despite the love of God,

My sins do weigh me down.

Oh Lord, how I lovest thou.

For thou hast led me through

When the wilderness kept me.

Whilst in valleys of death,

Whilst my flesh wasted away,

My cries, thou hast heard them,

And answered in the night-time.

I prayith unto thee

My heartsick soul thou healyth,

I noot if I can go on.

Oh, awake, my wretched soul!

Allow not anger here.

Let there be no place for sin.

Oh, rejoice in the Lord

And in his most kindest love.

He is thy redeemer.

Oh Lord, how I lovest thou.

In thee my soul delights

For thy love hath filled me up.

Hath filled me up with peace.

Notes:

• 'eyen' is the plural of 'eye'
• 'heartsick' means to be heartbroken or full of sorrow.
  

Glad Tidings from Cumorah

EMnE Hymn by Canyon

This hymn is based on Doctrine and Covenants 128:19-25 and other restoration scriptures. Section 128 is an epistle from Joseph Smith to the saints in Nuvoo and has always sounded like it could be a hymn; like Joseph was singing the words as he was writing. I took this as an opportunity to use his hymn-like language and combine it with a few Early Modern English syntactic and stylistic features. It is written in Long Meter and can be sung to the tune of Hymn #1, The Morning Breaks, the great restoration hymn penned by Parley P. Pratt and composed in Long Meter. Please enjoy.

Glad tidings from Cumorah heard
The Holy Father Father and the Son
Appear to Joseph in the Grove
Appear to Joseph in the Grove
A witness of their pow’r and love

At river’s bend, on bended knee
Joseph and Oliver receive
This dispensation's pow'r and keys
This dispensation's pow'r and keys
The prison burst for quick and dead

His house restored, the Lord appears
Pleas of his servants he doth hear
What do we hear in this good news?
What do we hear in this good news?
A voice of gladness, mercy, truth

Forward, brethren, to victory
Rejoice in your hearts; be glad and sing
Let earth sing forth and dead speak praise
Let earth sing forth and dead speak praise
King Immanuel set them free

With eyes now heav’nward turned and fixed
Proclaim ye his name forever more
Who shall abide his coming-day?
Who shall abide his coming-day?
His saints, his sons and daughters, we

Challah ME

To maken pleytid brede þat is icleped challah. In an dyhs, tempren an paste wyþ yist, water & sucre, soþþen do hit a-syde. In þe othur panne, boille mylke & buttere soþþen in hit dissolue sucre, hony & salte. Soþþen þat in þe yist paste and fowr egges & medle hem togidere. Be-tuene flour of huete an half dole on an half dole vntil þe doghe beon smothe & softe. Knedyn & let hit reyse twyse soþþen pleyt þe doghe in two hlafes. Maken an paste wyþ egge & creem soþþen þat hit on þe hlafes. Bake þe doghe vntil þe brede beon browne & hit sownede howlow.

Brede þat is icleped challah beon an brede of Iewes. Hit beon an symbole of mana, thous hit beon an symbole of Goddes luue. Hit beon al so an memorie to maken þe Sabot holy. Iewes maken twa hlafes by cause twa doles of mana weren takyn þe dai before þe Sabot soþþen no work beon done on þe Sabot.

To make braided bread that is called Challah. In a dish, mix a paste with yeast, water and sugar then put it aside. In another pan, boil milk and butter then in it dissolve sugar, honey and salt. Then put in the yeast paste and four eggs and mix them together. Beat wheat flour a half portion on half portion (a half portion at a time) until the dough is smooth and soft. Knead and let it raise twice then braid the dough in two loaves. Make a paste (glaze) with eggs and cream then put it on (top of) the loaves. Bake the dough until the bread is brown and it sounds hollow.

Bread that is called Challah is a Jewish bread. It is a symbol of manna, thus it is a symbol of God’s love. It is also a memory (reminder) to make (keep) the Sabbath holy. Jews make two loaves because two parts (shares) of manna were taken the day before the Sabbath so then no work is done on the Sabbath.